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Venezuelan propaganda

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This article does contain some useful information, but it is written from an anti-Chavez, anti-socialist perspective, and should be read with that in mind

Bolivarian propaganda[1] is a term used to describe the type of messages and pictures used to influence the behaviors and opinions of the Venezuelan people and promote the Chávista version of a "21st century Bolivarian Revolution".[2] The "Bolivarian propaganda" has been disseminated in great quantities both at home and abroad.[3] The image of Chávez can be seen on sides of buildings, on t-shirts, on ambulances, on official PDVSA billboards, and as action figures.[4] The extent of his branding, through propaganda, demonstrates Hugo's priority of remaining relevant to his people.

The term "Bolivarian Revolution" denotes a new system of government, which strays from U.S. promoted representative democracy and capitalism.[5] It is founded on Simon Bolivar’s vision of a unified South America led by a “strong but compassionate caudillo”.[6] The "caudillo" is responsible for transforming the military into the armed part of the nationalist revolution and enlist the poor as its support base, the basis for "Bolivarian Revolution".[7] The premise of the revolution is to replace the current system because of its failure to only serve the elites and exclude the "common people".[8] As opposed to a representative democracy, a "participatory democracy" (or a populist government supporting a socialist economic system), has become the foundation of the Hugo Chávez administration.[9] Under the “Bolivarian Revolution”, Chávez created “Plan Bolivar” to implement a strategy to improve welfare conditions for the poor and designed to integrate the Venezuelan troops into the “Bolivarian Revolution”.[10] A propaganda program has been established to accomplish "participatory democracy", to strengthen his political position, and to strengthen his power base.[11] According to Chávez, "'I do not believe that any individual or watchdog group can determine if information is fair and accurate...it is public opinion which must make up its mind on each case.'"[12]

Propaganda can be defined as the organized attempt, through a variety of communication mediums, to alter the belief or attitudes of a large audience, with the goal of affecting their overall judgement.[13] The idea of propaganda carries a negative connotation throughout the world. However, in Latin American countries, propaganda simply carries the meaning of advertisement.[14]

Bolivarian media propaganda

Pro-Chávista propaganda is a method by which Hugo Chávez promotes his Bolivarian ideals throughout Venezuela and Latin America.[15] Since his electoral victory in 1999, many of the media outlets have accused Chávez of using Bolivarian propaganda to successfully intimidate and silence both his opponents and the opposition media, while gaining mass consensus throughout the country.[16] [17] Below is a timeline depicting the progression of Chavista media propaganda through his time as president:

  • 1999: February 2 marked the presidential victory for Hugo Chavez. He began to promote his “Bolivarian Revolution” through print media, mostly in local newspapers like Barreto’s Correo del Presidente (focusing the messages on the transformation of Venezuela into a first world nation within ten years)[18], and with murals of himself throughout the country .[19]
  • 1999: Chavez began to use VTV, the state owned television station, to promote pro-Chávista ideals. [20] Today, VTV is an outlet that promotes Chávismo 24/7.[21]
  • 1999-2001: Chavez focused on using “cadenas” (chains), which are “officially mandated transmissions (often hours long) on all terrestrial broadcasting organizations”.[22] They became the perfect weapon to fight criticism all hours of the day, since they reached all audiences both in urban and rural sections of Venezuela.
  • 2001: Chávez transformed “Aló Presidente” from a radio show to a full-fledged live, unscripted, television show running all hours of the day promoting “Bolivarian Revolution", blaming the Venezuelan economic problems on its northern neighbor, the United States.[23] The show airs every Sunday, depicts Chavez (wearing red, the color of the revolution) as the charismatic leader, passionate about the well being of his country.[24] Many Venezuelan's tune in because Mr. Chavez is known for unveiling new financial assistance packages every weekend.[25] Since 1999, President Chavez has spent an average 40 hours a week on television promoting his "Bolivarian Revolution".[26]
  • 2002: Chávez focused on promoting his “Bolivarian Revolution” on a full-time basis, both domestically and internationally, by creating pro-Chávez television stations, ViVe and ANTV, as well as TeleSur, an ALBA[27] supported television channel targeting a broader regional audience, similar to CNN. [28]
  • 2002-2006: After the attempted coup d’état in April 2002, only two privately owned (supposed anti-Chávez/coup supporting) television stations remained in Venezuela, RCTV and Globovision.
  • 2004-2005: A new legal system was installed limiting political talk shows, modifying the penal code (simplifying ways people could sue for opinions emitted against them) creating self censorship of the press (Law of Social Responsibility 2005)[29], and forced all media to transmit ten free minutes a day of “institutional” messages of pro-Chávista propaganda.[30]
  • 2007: May 27 marked the last day for the privately owned RCTV. The administration did not renew their broadcasting license despite multiple protests from the employees and owners.[31] Chavez holds RCTV responsible for inciting the coup attempt in 2002, thus refused to renew its license.[32] RCTV reemerged as RCTV International on cable television in 2010. After 3 years broadcasting on cable television, presumed free from the grasp of the Chavez administration, it was again removed from broadcasting in 2010 because of failure to meet CONATEL's order to hold a “international” channel certification; a request that was previously rejected by CONATEL.[33] Globovisión, the last television channel to avoid government criticisms, faced a $2.1 million fine (from CONATEL) on October 2011 for an alleged violation of the broadcasting statute.[34] The television channel apparently aired unapproved images of a prison riot in June.[35]
  • 2007-2012: The state controls the majority of media sources within the country, inundating audiences with pro-Chávez, pro-"Bolivarian Revolutionary" ideals throughout the urban and rural areas.[36] Pro-Chávista ideals infiltrate radio stations, local and cable television channels, newspapers, the internet, and public buildings (with murals). It can be argued that Chávez has reached a “communicational hegemony” with the creation of TeleSur[37], reaching international spheres of influence in Bolivia, Nicaragua, Ecuador, and Cuba promoting a unified South America under his "Bolivarian Revolution".[38]

Background to pro-Socialist propaganda

The propaganda model used by Chávez is argued to have derived from the Bolshevik movement during the 1920s, which targeted capitalism throughout the world. The Bolsheviks used propaganda to convince the masses that capitalism was "bad" and a socialist version of the world was necessary for all people to reach economic freedom.[39] According to a renowned history of propaganda author, Bolshevik propaganda is known to have "mystical subversive powers which no other operation could match" [40] and was implemented by: government channels, the party channels, trade unions, individual subversive operators (local community radio stations), films, radio, posters, books, consular missions, and cover organizations.[41] The main theme of the propaganda was to reiterate the Bolshevik mission of a world revolution focusing on the removal of all "owning classes from control of the productive capital" thus putting the capital in control of the working class.[42] The message of the propaganda was always directly political or social, and aimed at reinventing history to suite the incoming party.[43] The creation of a new vocabulary by changing the meanings of certain words to suite the Bolshevik agenda, increased their control over the people and created the opportunity for propaganda everywhere.[44] The Soviet Union propaganda penetrated cultural institutions such as: theater, books, art, education, museums, libraries, newspapers, TV, and radio stations.

Hugo Chavez continues the Bolshevik model into the 21st century. By creating Alo Presidente, TeleSUR, the Center for Situational Studies of the Nation (with ability to limit public dissemination of information or facts perceived to be confidential)[45], creating the Venezuelan Solidarity Campaign (a pro-Bolivarian revolutionary website operated out of the U.K.), a pro-socialist education program for public schools, pro-Chavez movies (South of the Border)[46], pro-Chavez festivals (Viva Venezuela: Cultural Celebration)[47], pro-chavez symphonies, an alleged loyal chavista branch of bishops in the Catholic church[48], canceling RCTV, altering the laws (requiring citizens to report disloyal citizens therefore accusing dissidents of being spies or agents of the imperialist enemy-U.S.),[49] and allegedly destroying information about his government-where official government numbers have been redefined, changed, or disappeared-has allowed Hugo Chavez to promote his populist messages to all of Venezuela.[50] The Chavez government has been accused of abusing its control over broadcasting frequencies, where they hold the ability punish radio and television stations that are thought to broadcast anti-Chavista programming.[51] In 2009, CONATEL (the government broadcasting authority) was responsible for closing 32 radio stations and over 200 others were being reviewed.[52] The crackdown in radio broadcasting has allowed “community” radio stations to spread across the country promoting pro-Chavez ideals without much opposition.[53] Additionally, the new version of media law has promoted self-censorship within most of the opposition media. Through the use of propaganda, Chavez has continually verbalized his successes on television which has resulted in a large popular base of support.[54]

Bolivarian propaganda dissemination and its message

The "Bolivarian propaganda" uses emotional arguments to gain attention, exploit the fears (either real or imagined) of the population, create external enemies for scapegoat purposes, and produce nationalism within the population, causing feelings of betrayal for support of the opposition.[55] The images and messages promote ideological mobilization[56], including: Chavez as a “liberator”, the positive effects of the “Bolivarian Revolution” (including social reforms), state companies (like PDVSA), and power deriving from the people.[57] The overall goal of the "Bolivarian" propaganda machine is to reflect society's wants and goals for an improved Venezuela.[58]

The "Bolivarian Revolution" is advertised through all outlets: TV, radio, Internet (with websites like the Venezuelan Solidarity Campaign)[59] , magazines (like Viva Venezuela)[60] , newspapers, murals, billboards, memorabilia (action figures, t-shirts, posters), schools (through the lesson plans and books)[61], movies, symphonies (Orquesta Sinfónica Simón Bolívar), festivals, and public service vehicles (like buses and ambulances).[62] The face of Chávez is found everywhere represeting his greatness and similarities to Simon Bolivar. The murals and billboards illustrate the president with his red barrette, his arm raised and fist clenched grabbing on to the "capitalism snake", or his saluting the Venezuelan flag. The majority of the messages, "vivir en socialismo" (live in socialism), "Venezuela, ahora es de todos" (Venezuela is now for everyone), "No cambiemos el clima, cabiemos el systema" (we aren't changing the climate we are changing the system), "hecho en socialismo" (made in socialism), "independienca y revolucion" (independence and revolution), "patria sociolismo o muerte" (national socialism or death) are spread throughout all of the country.[63] The typical images that accompany the pro-socialist messages are: the Bolshevik red star, Che Guevara portraits, Simon Bolivar portraits, red barrettes, Venezuelan flags, evil uncle sam, uncle sam as a snake, and Chavez with the superman logo.[64]

Success or Failure

A successful propaganda campaign addresses four variables: to capture the attention of the right audience; to deliver an understandable and credible message; to deliver a message that influences the beliefs or understanding of the audience; and to create social contexts that lead toward desired outcomes.[65]

The state is in charge of all public television stations and public radio stations, including RNV the only radio station with full national coverage.[66] They are able to reach all Venezuelans, and other Latin Americans, all hours of the day and night. The pro-Chávista/pro-Bolivarian revolutionary messages have been depicted throughout all corners of the country to include rural and urban areas. The creation of laws contributing to self-censorship, including telecommunication law (the ability of the government to revoke private outlets if it is convenient to Venezuela or demanded by the public) together with the 2005 amendments to the criminal code which increase the scope of desacato laws (which criminalize disrespect of high government officials); and a broadcasting statute allowing haphazard suspension of channels because of vaguely defined “incitement” offenses have only aided in the ability of the government to influence its people and discourage the opposition.[67] Furthermore, as of December 2010 the Venezuelan National Assembly extended the scope of the broadcasting statute to include the internet.[68]

References

  1. ↑ Template:Propaganda
  2. ↑ MANWARING, MAX G. (2005). VENEZUELA’S HUGO CHÁVEZ, BOLIVARIAN SOCIALISM, AND ASYMMETRIC WARFARE, p. 8-13, http://www.strategicstudiesinstitute.army.mil/pdffiles/pub628.pdf:+The Strategic Studies Institute.
  3. ↑ Kraft, Michael (24 July 2007). [www.charlotteconservative.com/inex.php/2007/07/chavez-propaganda-machine/ "Chavez Propaganda Machine"]. Charlotte Conservative. www.charlotteconservative.com/inex.php/2007/07/chavez-propaganda-machine/. Retrieved 10 March 2012. </li>
  4. ↑ Moloney, Anastasia (29 January 2007). [www.worldpoliticsreview.com/articles "Photo Feature: Chavez's Propaganda"]. World Politics Reveiw. www.worldpoliticsreview.com/articles. Retrieved 10 March 2012. </li>
  5. ↑ MANWARING, MAX G. (2005). VENEZUELA’S HUGO CHÁVEZ, BOLIVARIAN SOCIALISM, AND ASYMMETRIC WARFARE, p. 8, http://www.strategicstudiesinstitute.army.mil/pdffiles/pub628.pdf:+The Strategic Studies Institute.
  6. ↑ McCaughan, Michael (2005). The Battle of Venezuela, p. 89, New York: Seven Stories Press.
  7. ↑ McCaughan, Michael (2005). The Battle of Venezuela, p. 107, New York: Seven Stories Press.
  8. ↑ MANWARING, MAX G. (2005). VENEZUELA’S HUGO CHÁVEZ, BOLIVARIAN SOCIALISM, AND ASYMMETRIC WARFARE, p. 8, http://www.strategicstudiesinstitute.army.mil/pdffiles/pub628.pdf:+The Strategic Studies Institute.
  9. ↑ MANWARING, MAX G. (2005). VENEZUELA’S HUGO CHÁVEZ, BOLIVARIAN SOCIALISM, AND ASYMMETRIC WARFARE, p. 8, http://www.strategicstudiesinstitute.army.mil/pdffiles/pub628.pdf:+The Strategic Studies Institute.
  10. ↑ McCaughan, Michael (2005). The Battle of Venezuela, p. 89, New York: Seven Stories Press.
  11. ↑ MANWARING, MAX G. (2005). VENEZUELA’S HUGO CHÁVEZ, BOLIVARIAN SOCIALISM, AND ASYMMETRIC WARFARE, p. 10, http://www.strategicstudiesinstitute.army.mil/pdffiles/pub628.pdf:+The Strategic Studies Institute.
  12. ↑ McCaughan, Michael (2005). The Battle of Venezuela, p. 95, New York: Seven Stories Press.
  13. ↑ Paul, Christopher (2008). Information Operations Doctrine and Practice, p. 9, Westport Connecticut: Praeger Security International.
  14. ↑ Paul, Christopher (2008). Information Operations Doctrine and Practice, p. 9, Westport Connecticut: Praeger Security International.
  15. ↑ Kraft, Michael (24 July 2007). [www.charlotteconservative.com/inex.php/2007/07/chavez-propaganda-machine/ "Chavez Propaganda Machine"]. Charlotte Conservative. www.charlotteconservative.com/inex.php/2007/07/chavez-propaganda-machine/. Retrieved 10 March 2012. </li>
  16. ↑ MANWARING, MAX G. (2005). VENEZUELA’S HUGO CHÁVEZ, BOLIVARIAN SOCIALISM, AND ASYMMETRIC WARFARE, p. 11, http://www.strategicstudiesinstitute.army.mil/pdffiles/pub628.pdf:+The Strategic Studies Institute.
  17. ↑ McCaughan, Michael (2005). The Battle of Venezuela, p. 95, New York, New York: Seven Stories Press.
  18. ↑ McCaughan, Michael (2005). The Battle of Venezuela, p. 98, New York: Seven Stories Press.
  19. ↑ Kraft, Michael (24 July 2007). [www.charlotteconservative.com/inex.php/2007/07/chavez-propaganda-machine/ "Chavez Propaganda Machine"]. Charlotte Conservative. www.charlotteconservative.com/inex.php/2007/07/chavez-propaganda-machine/. Retrieved 10 March 2012. </li>
  20. ↑ Kraft, Michael (24 July 2007). [www.charlotteconservative.com/index.php/2007/07/chavez-propaganda-machine/ "Chavez Propaganda Machine"]. Charlotte Conservative. www.charlotteconservative.com/index.php/2007/07/chavez-propaganda-machine/. Retrieved 10 March 2012. </li>
  21. ↑ Kraft, Michael (24 July 2007). [www.charlotteconservative.com/index.php/2007/07/chavez-propaganda-machine/ "Chavez Propaganda Machine"]. Charlotte Conservative. www.charlotteconservative.com/index.php/2007/07/chavez-propaganda-machine/. Retrieved 10 March 2012. </li>
  22. ↑ Carson, Roy (26 November 2008). "As Russian warships, Medvedev, visit Venezuela, the Maduro/Flores 'Rocky Horror Show' becomes tragi-comedy!". OpEd News. http://www.opednews.com/articles/As-Russian-warships-Medve-by-Roy-S-Carson-081126-186.html. Retrieved 10 March 2012. </li>
  23. ↑ Lakshmanan, Indira (27 July 2005). "Channeling his energies Venezuelans riveted by president's TV show". The Boston Globe. http://www.boston.com/news/world/latinamerica/articles/2005/07/27/channeling_his_energies/?page=1. Retrieved 14 April 2012. </li>
  24. ↑ Kraft, Michael (24 July 2007). [www.charlotteconservative.com/inex.php/2007/07/chavez-propaganda-machine/ "Chavez Propaganda Machine"]. Charlotte Conservative. www.charlotteconservative.com/inex.php/2007/07/chavez-propaganda-machine/. Retrieved 10 March 2012. </li>
  25. ↑ McCaughan, Michael (2005). The Battle of Venezuela, p. 196, New York: Seven Stories Press.
  26. ↑ Schoen, Douglas (2009). The Threat Closer to Home, p. 154, New York: Free Press.
  27. ↑ ARREAZA, TERESA (20 January 2004). "ALBA: Bolivarian Alternative for Latin America and the Caribbean". Venezuelanlysis.com. http://venezuelanalysis.com/analysis/339. Retrieved 12 March 2012. </li>
  28. ↑ Kraft, Michael (24 July 2007). [www.charloteconservative.com/index.php/2007/07/chavez-propaganda-machine/ "Chavez Propaganda Machine"]. Charlotte Conservative. www.charloteconservative.com/index.php/2007/07/chavez-propaganda-machine/. Retrieved 10 March 2012. </li>
  29. ↑ McCaughan, Michael (2005). The Battle of Venezuela, p. 95, New York: Seven Stories Press.
  30. ↑ Kraft, Michael (24 July 2007). [www.charlotteconservative.com/inex.php/2007/07/chavez-propaganda-machine/ "Chavez Propaganda Machine"]. Charlotte Conservative. www.charlotteconservative.com/inex.php/2007/07/chavez-propaganda-machine/. Retrieved 10 March 2012. </li>
  31. ↑ Carroll, Rory (23 May 2007). [www.guardian.co.uk/media/2007/may/23/venezuela.broadcsting/print "Chavez silences critical TV station - and robs the people of their soaps"]. The Guardian. www.guardian.co.uk/media/2007/may/23/venezuela.broadcsting/print. Retrieved 10 March 2012. </li>
  32. ↑ Edwards, David (2009). Newspeak in the 21st Century, p. 192-193, New York, New York: Pluto Press.
  33. ↑ World Report 2012: Venezuela. The Human Rights Watch. URL accessed on 14 April 2012.
  34. ↑ World Report 2012: Venezuela. The Human Rights Watch. URL accessed on 14 April 2012.
  35. ↑ World Report 2012: Venezuela. The Human Rights Watch. URL accessed on 14 April 2012.
  36. ↑ Kraft, Michael (24 July 2007). [www.charlotteconservative.com/index.php/2007/07/chavez-propaganda-machine/ "Chavez Propaganda Machine"]. Charlotte Conservative. www.charlotteconservative.com/index.php/2007/07/chavez-propaganda-machine/. Retrieved 10 March 2012. </li>
  37. ↑ teleSUR homepage.
  38. ↑ Hirst, Joel (8 March 2012). "The Bolivarian Alliance & the Hugo Chavez Propaganda Machine". Latin American Herald Tribune. http://laht.com/article.asp?CategoryId=13303&ArticleId=375338. Retrieved 10 March 2012. </li>
  39. ↑ Linebarger, Paul (2010). Psychological Warfare, p. 104, Landisville Pennsylvania: Coachwhip Publications.
  40. ↑ Linebarger, Paul (2010). Psychological Warfare, p. 106, Landisville Pennsylvania: Coachwhip Publications.
  41. ↑ Linebarger, Paul (2010). Psychological Warfare, p. 107, Landisville Pennsylvania: Coachwhip Publications.
  42. ↑ Linebarger, Paul (2010). Psychological Warfare, p. 107, Landisville Pennsylvania: Coachwhip Publications.
  43. ↑ Turner, Andrew (2007). Propaganda in Havana: The Politics of Public Space and Collective Memory in the Socialist City, p. 12,19, Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania.
  44. ↑ Linebarger, Paul (2010). Psychological Warfare, p. 108, Landisville Pennsylvania: Coachwhip Publications.
  45. ↑ World Report 2012: Venezuela. The Human Rights Watch. URL accessed on 14 April 2012.
  46. ↑ South of the Border- A film by Oliver Stone. URL accessed on 14 April 2012.
  47. ↑ Viva Venezuela! Cultural Celebration. Venezuelan Solidarity Campaign. URL accessed on 14 April 2012.
  48. ↑ Schoen, Douglas (2009). The Threat Closer to Home, p. 154, New York: Free Press.
  49. ↑ Schoen, Douglas (2009). The Threat Closer to Home, p. 156, New York: Free Press.
  50. ↑ Schoen, Douglas (2009). The Threat Closer to Home, p. 154, New York: Free Press.
  51. ↑ World Report 2012: Venezuela. The Human Rights Watch. URL accessed on 14 April 2012.
  52. ↑ World Report 2012: Venezuela. The Human Rights Watch. URL accessed on 14 April 2012.
  53. ↑ Kraft, Michael (24 July 2007). [www.charlotteconservative.com/index.php/2007/07/chavez-propaganda-machine/ "Chavez Propaganda Machine"]. Charlotte Conservative. www.charlotteconservative.com/index.php/2007/07/chavez-propaganda-machine/. Retrieved 10 March 2012. </li>
  54. ↑ MANWARING, MAX G. (2005). VENEZUELA’S HUGO CHÁVEZ, BOLIVARIAN SOCIALISM, AND ASYMMETRIC WARFARE, p. 12, http://www.strategicstudiesinstitute.army.mil/pdffiles/pub628.pdf:+The Strategic Studies Institute.
  55. ↑ MANWARING, MAX G. (2005). VENEZUELA’S HUGO CHÁVEZ, BOLIVARIAN SOCIALISM, AND ASYMMETRIC WARFARE, p. 11, http://www.strategicstudiesinstitute.army.mil/pdffiles/pub628.pdf:+The Strategic Studies Institute.
  56. ↑ Turner, Andrew (2007). Propaganda in Havana: The Politics of Public Space and Collective Memory in the Socialist City, p. 14, Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania.
  57. ↑ Moloney, Anastasia (29 January 2007). "Photo Feature: Chavez's Propaganda". The World Politics Review. http://www.worldpoliticsreview.com/trend-lines/506/photo-feature-ch-vezs-propaganda. Retrieved 10 March 2012. </li>
  58. ↑ Turner, Andrew (2007). Propaganda in Havana: The Politics of Public Space and Collective Memory in the Socialist City, p. 14, Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania.
  59. ↑ Venezuela Solidarity Campaign. URL accessed on 14 April 2012.
  60. ↑ Viva Venezuela. URL accessed on 14 April 2012.
  61. ↑ MANWARING, MAX G. (2005). VENEZUELA’S HUGO CHÁVEZ, BOLIVARIAN SOCIALISM, AND ASYMMETRIC WARFARE, p. 10, http://www.strategicstudiesinstitute.army.mil/pdffiles/pub628.pdf:+The Strategic Studies Institute.
  62. ↑ Moloney, Anastasia (29 January 2007). [www.worldpoliticsreview.com/articles "Photo Feature: Chavez's Propaganda"]. World Politics Reveiw. www.worldpoliticsreview.com/articles. Retrieved 10 March 2012. </li>
  63. ↑ Sanches, Angel Camino Venezuela Propaganda gobierno. URL accessed on 12 April 2012.
  64. ↑ Moloney, Anastasia (29 January 2007). [www.worldpoliticsreview.com/articles "Photo Feature: Chavez's Propaganda"]. World Politics Reveiw. www.worldpoliticsreview.com/articles. Retrieved 10 March 2012. </li>
  65. ↑ Turner, Andrew (2007). Propaganda in Havana: The Politics of Public Space and Collective Memory in the Socialist City, p. 17, Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania.
  66. ↑ Kraft, Michael (24 July 2007). [www.charlotteconservative.com/index.php/2007/07/chavez-propaganda-machine/ "Chavez Propaganda Machine"]. The Charlotte Conservative. www.charlotteconservative.com/index.php/2007/07/chavez-propaganda-machine/. Retrieved 10 March 2012. </li>
  67. ↑ World Report 2012: Venezuela. The Human Rights Watch. URL accessed on 14 April 2012.
  68. ↑ World Report 2012: Venezuela. The Human Rights Watch. URL accessed on 14 April 2012.

    69. </ol>

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AND ASYMMETRIC WARFARE. The Strategic Studies Institute, U.S. Army. October 2005. http://www.strategicstudiesinstitute.army.mil/pdffiles/pub628.pdf

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the Socialist City. Urban Studies Program, Senior Seminar Papers. University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia: 2007.

  • Schoen Douglas E, andMichael Rowan. The Threat Closer to Home. Free Press, New York: 2009.
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~~pincheslappel

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