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Difference between revisions of "Sunstone"

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(....Up for AfD. Not exactly Survivalists, our WPians. Should a Nuclear Winter come, they will be arguing over which brand of water purification kit's performance is well sourced enough to use it)
 
(....The original form of the article, for the record. For the purposes of imagining the conga line of PoV responsible for the AfD, bear in mind that this is very close to the 1st draught.)
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''This article is about the navigational tool. For the modern semi-precious gem Sunstone, see [[Sunstone (gem stone)]] or [[Wikipedia:Sunstone]]''
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The '''sunstone''' ({{lang-is|sólarsteinn}}) is a type of [[mineral]] attested in several 13th–14th century written sources in [[Iceland]], one of which describes its use to locate the sun in a completely overcast sky. Sunstones are also mentioned in the inventories of several [[church (building)|church]]es and one [[monastery]] in 14th–15th century Iceland. A theory exists that the sunstone had [[Polarizer|polarizing]] attributes and was used as a [[navigation]] instrument by seafarers in the [[Viking Age]].<ref name="thorkild_1967"/>
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The '''sunstone''' (sólarsteinn) is a navigational instrument used by medieval Scandinavians. In completely overcast skies, with the sun completely indistinguishable to the naked eye from the hazy white sky, the Sunstone allows more light to pass to an observer facing the sun. The user rotates, holding the stone near eye level, until the stone 'glows' when the position of the stone is most nearly between the sun and the users eyes. It requires practice and patience to determine the position of the sun in this way; by modern standards, this is a tenuous grasp on current location, but it was the difference between life and death for many a Nordic sailor. The mineral used to construct this crucial tool is fragile, and no surviving examples have been found, but it can be reconstructed (and has been scientifically tested as effective) with any adequate [[Wikipedia:Polarizer]], such as can be formed with the [[mineral]]s [[Cordierite]] or [[Iceland spar]]. Scientists hypothesized that the polarizing attributes of these minerals could increase light reception from the sun's position in the sky, and experiments to replicate this effect with modern polarizing lenses have yielded positive results.<ref name="thorkild_1967"/>
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Sunstone is mentioned in several 13th–14th century written sources in [[Iceland]], one of which describes its use to locate the sun in an overcast sky. Sunstones are also mentioned in the inventories of several [[church (building)|church]]es and one [[monastery]] in 14th–15th century Iceland. No mention has yet been found of its use by seafarers in the [[Viking Age]], but it seems likely that it was used by them, barring some unforeseen difficulty with using it on board ship.
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The sunstone was 'rediscovered' as a navigational tool in the middle of the 20th Century. As early as 1949, working 'sky stones' were being used by aviators and the military.<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=QgMnAAAAMAAJ&q=sky+compass&dq=sky+compass&hl=en&ei=zBYZTe6MFYXmsQPuzPDMAg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=5&ved=0CEIQ6AEwBA Google Books search for "Sky compass" The Aeroplane, Volume 87, Temple Press, 1954]</ref><ref>http://books.google.com/books?id=4wPtYmV2MUUC&pg=PA218&dq=polarizer+sunstone&hl=en&ei=cxYZTYCtDYKssAOXhLTiCg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=6&ved=0CEUQ6AEwBQ#v=onepage&q&f=false Google Books search for "Polarizer sunstone" Dawn Light: Dancing with Cranes and Other Ways to Start the Day by Diane Ackerman]</ref>
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==Sources==
 
==Sources==
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One medieval source in Iceland, "[[Rauðúlfs þáttr]]",<ref name="jtp_1947"/><ref name="faulkes_1966"/> mentions the sunstone as a mineral by means of which the sun could be located in an overcast and snowy sky by holding it up and noting where additional light could be seen (''hvar geislaði úr honum'').<ref name="sample_guardian"/> Sunstones are also listed in ''[[Hrafns saga Sveinbjarnarsonar]]'' (13th century) <ref name="hgp_1987"/> and in church and monastic inventories (14th–15th century).<ref name="foote_56"/> The sunstone texts of ''Hrafns saga Sveinbjarnarsonar'' were copied to all four versions of the medieval [[hagiography]] ''[[Guðmundur Arason|Guðmundar saga góða]]''.<ref name="karlsson_1983"/>
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One [[medieval]] source in Iceland, "[[Rauðúlfs þáttr]]",<ref name="jtp_1947"/><ref name="faulkes66"/> mentions the sunstone as a mineral by means of which the sun could be located in an overcast and snowy sky by holding it up and noting where it emitted, reflected or transmitted light (''hvar geislaði úr honum'').<ref name="sample_guardian"/> Sunstones are also mentioned in ''[[Hrafns saga Sveinbjarnarsonar]]'' (13th century)<ref name="hgp87"/> and in church and monastic inventories (14th–15th century) without discussing their attributes. The sunstone texts of ''Hrafns saga Sveinbjarnarsonar'' were copied to all four versions of the medieval [[hagiography]] ''[[Guðmundur Arason|Guðmundar saga góða]]''.<ref name="karlsson_1983"/>
  
 
The description in "Rauðúlfs þáttr" of the use of the sunstone is as follows:
 
The description in "Rauðúlfs þáttr" of the use of the sunstone is as follows:
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</blockquote>
 
</blockquote>
  
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Hrafns saga Sveinbjarnarsonar contains a mention of a sunstone.<ref name="einarrson_gripla"/> alongside purely allegorical material associated with Hrafn’s slaying. Because so many otherwise mundane objects are used in a symbolic way in allegories, it is tempting to dismiss this as evidence, but allegories are a symbol of things known to the reader. The allegory is more or less fiction, and to convey its complicated message it depends at times on imaginary creations, but the better known to the listener the items in it are, the more functional they are to pass on the message of the allegory. In this way, a celestial vision with three cosmological [[knights]], recalling the horsemen of the [[Apocalypse]],<ref name="helg_87"/> has allegorical allusions to the winter [[solstice]] and the four [[classical element|elements]], as well as a sunstone; the two former would have been better known to contemporaries even than they are to modern day readers, and tend to confirm that the latter was, also. That they together constitute an omen of Hrafn’s death is both, less known to modern.  
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==Allegorical nature of the medieval texts==
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Two of the original medieval texts on the sunstone are [[allegorical]]. Hrafns saga Sveinbjarnarsonar contains a burst of purely allegorical material associated with Hrafn’s slaying. This involves a celestial vision with three highly cosmological [[knights]], recalling the horsemen of the [[Apocalypse]].<ref name="hgp87"/> It has been suggested that the horsemen of Hrafns saga contain allegorical allusions to the winter [[solstice]] and the four [[classical element|elements]] as an omen of Hrafn’s death, where the sunstone also appears.<ref name="ein_grip"/>
  
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"Rauðúlfs þáttr", a medieval allegory of [[Saint Olav]], gives clues to how the sunstone was used.<ref name="saintolaf"/> St. Olav used the sunstone to confirm the time reckoning skill of his host. He held the sunstone up against the snowy and completely overcast sky and noted where light came strongest from it. Use of the sunstone is described in sufficient detail to show that the idea of using a stone to find the sun's position in overcast conditions was commonplace.<ref name="ein_2010b"/> The house belongs to the genre of of "abodes of the sun,"  which seemed widespread in medieval literature.<ref name="faulkes_66"/>  
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"Rauðúlfs þáttr", a tale of [[Saint Olav]], and the only medieval source mentioning how the sunstone was used, is a thoroughly allegorical work.<ref name="saintolaf"/> A round and rotating house visited by Olav has been interpreted as a model of the [[cosmos]] and the human [[soul]], as well as a [[wikt:prefiguration|prefiguration]] of the Church.<ref name="hild_imagery"/><ref name="loescher"/> The intention of the author was to achieve an [[apotheosis]] of St. Olav, through placing him in the symbolic seat of [[Christ]].<ref name="saintolaf"/> The house belongs to the genre of of "abodes of the sun,"  which seemed widespread in medieval literature.<ref name="faulkes66"/> St. Olav used the sunstone to confirm the time reckoning skill of his host right after leaving this allegorical house. He held the sunstone up against the snowy and completely overcast sky and noted where light was emitted from it (the Icelandic words used do not make it clear whether the light was reflected by the stone, emitted by it or transmitted through it). It has been suggested that in Rauðúlfs þáttr the sunstone was used as a symbol of the [[Virgin]], following a widespread tradition<ref name="abreeze"/> in which the virgin birth of Christ is compared with glass letting a ray of the sun through.<ref name="ein_grip"/><ref name="bragason"/>
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A widespread tradition <ref name="abreeze"/> has it that the virgin birth of Christ was compared with glass letting a ray of the sun through a sunstone.<ref name="bragason"/><ref name="ein_2010a"/>
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The allegories of the above mentioned texts exploit the symbolic value of the sunstone, but the church and monastic inventories, however, show that something called sunstones did exist as physical objects in Iceland.<ref name="foote_56"/> The presence of the sunstone in "Rauðúlfs þáttr" may be entirely symbolic<ref name="schnall75"/> but its use is described in sufficient detail to show that the idea of using a stone to find the sun's position in overcast conditions was commonplace.<ref name="ein_grip"/>
  
 
==Sunstones for orientation and navigation?==
 
==Sunstones for orientation and navigation?==
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Danish archaeologist Thorkild Ramskou posited that the sunstone could have been one of the minerals ([[cordierite]] or [[Iceland spar]]) that [[Polarizer|polarize]] light and by which the [[azimuth]] of the sun can be determined amid a partly overcast sky or when the sun is just below the horizon.<ref name="thorkild"/><ref name="thorkild_nav"/> The principle is used by many animals<ref name="animals"/> and was applied during polar flights before more advanced techniques became available. Ramskou’s theory that the sunstone could have aided [[Longship#Navigation|navigation]] in the open sea in the Viking period is supported by experimental evidence,<ref name="peasoup"/>, but no extant records of the use of a sunstone for navigation exist in the medieval literature.  
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Danish archaeologist Thorkild Ramskou posited that the sunstone could have been one of the minerals ([[cordierite]] or [[Iceland spar]]) that [[Polarizer|polarize]] light and by which the [[azimuth]] of the sun can be determined amid a partly overcast sky or when the sun is just below the horizon.<ref name="thorkild"/><ref name="thorkild_nav"/> The principle is used by many animals<ref name="animals"/> and was applied during polar flights before more advanced techniques became available.<ref name="skyc"/> Ramskou’s theory that the sunstone could have aided [[Longship#Navigation|navigation]] in the open sea in the Viking period has become very popular,<ref name="peasoup"/> but no extant records of the use of a sunstone for navigation exist in the medieval literature, and used alone, a polarizing mineral only gives the horizontal angle of the sun (azimuth), which is only of marginal value when navigating the open sea.<ref name="schnall75"/> A polarizing crystal would have been useful as a [[sundial]], especially at high [[latitude]]s with extended hours of twilight, in mountainous areas or in partly overcast conditions, although only in conjunction with known landmarks; churches and monasteries would have valued such an object as an aid to keep track of the [[canonical hours]].<ref name="ein_grip"/>
  
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It has been pointed out by one scholar that used alone, a polarizing mineral only gives the horizontal angle of the sun (azimuth), which is only of marginal value when navigating the open sea, but this disregards the fact that the margin between life and death at sea, while seemingly of a value insufficient to rouse a sufficient number of a certain scholar's brain cells for this particular task, is quite important to sailors of any age.<ref name="schnall_77"/>
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==See also==
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*[[Vegvísir]]
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A polarizing crystal might have been useful, with repeated observations throughout the day, and fixed points of reference, as a [[sundial]]. High [[latitude]]s with extended hours of twilight, mountainous areas, partly overcast conditions, and known landmarks such as churches and monasteries would have have increased the value of such an object as an aid to keep track of the [[canonical hours]].<ref name="ein_2010c"/>
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==References==
 
==References==
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<references>
 
<ref name="thorkild_1967">[[Thorkild Ramskou|Ramskou, Thorkild]]. 1967. ''Solstenen''. Skalk 2: 16–17.</ref>
 
<ref name="thorkild_1967">[[Thorkild Ramskou|Ramskou, Thorkild]]. 1967. ''Solstenen''. Skalk 2: 16–17.</ref>
 
<ref name="jtp_1947">[[Joan Turville-Petre|Turville-Petre, Joan E.]] (Trans.) (1947). ''[http://vsnrweb-publications.org.uk/http://vsnrweb-publications.org.uk/The%20Story%20Of%20Raud%20And%20His%20Sons.pdf The story of Rauð and his sons]''. ''Payne Memorial Series II''. [[Viking Society for Northern Research]].</ref>
 
<ref name="jtp_1947">[[Joan Turville-Petre|Turville-Petre, Joan E.]] (Trans.) (1947). ''[http://vsnrweb-publications.org.uk/http://vsnrweb-publications.org.uk/The%20Story%20Of%20Raud%20And%20His%20Sons.pdf The story of Rauð and his sons]''. ''Payne Memorial Series II''. [[Viking Society for Northern Research]].</ref>
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<ref name="faulkes_1966">[[Anthony Faulkes|Faulkes, Anthony]]. 1966. "[[Rauðúlfs þáttr]]: A study". ''[[Studia Islandica]]'' 25. Heimspekideild Háskóla Íslands og Bókaútgáfa Menningarsjóðs. [[Reykjavík]]. {{ISSN|0258-3828}}</ref>
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<ref name="faulkes66">[[Anthony Faulkes|Faulkes, Anthony]]. 1966. "[[Rauðúlfs þáttr]]: A study". ''[[Studia Islandica]]'' 25. Heimspekideild Háskóla Íslands og Bókaútgáfa Menningarsjóðs. [[Reykjavík]]. {{ISSN|0258-3828}}</ref>
 
<ref name="sample_guardian">Sample, Ian."[http://www.guardian.co.uk/science/2007/feb/07/uknews.sciencenews1 Crystals may have aided Viking sailors]". ''[[The Guardian|Guardian]]'' (Manchester, UK) p.&nbsp;8. 7 February 2007. Retrieved December 27, 2010. "''Tests aboard a research vessel in the Arctic ocean found that certain crystals can be used to reveal the position of the sun, a trick that would have allowed early explorers to ascertain their position and navigate, even if the sky was obscured by cloud or fog.''"</ref>
 
<ref name="sample_guardian">Sample, Ian."[http://www.guardian.co.uk/science/2007/feb/07/uknews.sciencenews1 Crystals may have aided Viking sailors]". ''[[The Guardian|Guardian]]'' (Manchester, UK) p.&nbsp;8. 7 February 2007. Retrieved December 27, 2010. "''Tests aboard a research vessel in the Arctic ocean found that certain crystals can be used to reveal the position of the sun, a trick that would have allowed early explorers to ascertain their position and navigate, even if the sky was obscured by cloud or fog.''"</ref>
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<ref name="hgp_1987">Helgadóttir, Guðrún P (ed.). 1987. ''Hrafns Saga Sveinbjarnarsonar''. Oxford: [[Clarendon Press]]. ISBN 0-19-811162-2.</ref>
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<ref name="hgp87">Helgadóttir, Guðrún P (ed.). 1987. ''Hrafns Saga Sveinbjarnarsonar''. Oxford: [[Clarendon Press]]. ISBN 0-19-811162-2.</ref>
 
<ref name="karlsson_1983">Karlsson, Stefán (ed.).1983. ''Guðmundar sögur biskups I: Ævi Guðmundar biskups, Guðmundar saga A''. ''Editiones Arnamagnæanæ, Series B'' ('''6'''). [[Copenhagen|København]]: [[C.A. Reitzels Forlag]]. ISBN 87-7421-387-3</ref>
 
<ref name="karlsson_1983">Karlsson, Stefán (ed.).1983. ''Guðmundar sögur biskups I: Ævi Guðmundar biskups, Guðmundar saga A''. ''Editiones Arnamagnæanæ, Series B'' ('''6'''). [[Copenhagen|København]]: [[C.A. Reitzels Forlag]]. ISBN 87-7421-387-3</ref>
 
<ref name="timetravel">Vilhjalmsson, Thorsteinn. 1997. "[http://www.raunvis.hi.is/~thv/t_t.html Time and Travel in Old Norse Society]". ''[[Disputatio]]'', (II): 89–114.</ref>
 
<ref name="timetravel">Vilhjalmsson, Thorsteinn. 1997. "[http://www.raunvis.hi.is/~thv/t_t.html Time and Travel in Old Norse Society]". ''[[Disputatio]]'', (II): 89–114.</ref>
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<ref name="tt_trans">Johnsen and Helgason, ''Saga Óláfs'', 670–1; Kristjánsdóttir ''et al''., ''Heimskringla III'', 23. cited in Vilhjalmsson, ''loc. cit.''</ref>
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<ref name="tt_trans">Johnsen, Oscar Albert and Jón Helgason (eds.). 1941. Saga Óláfs konungs hins helga. Den store saga om Olav den hellige. Efter pergamenthandskrift i Kungliga Biblioteket i Stockholm nr. 2 4to med varianter fra andre handskrifter. Norsk Historisk Kjeldeskrifts-Institutt. Oslo. Vol. II.'', 670–1</ref>
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<ref name="helg_87">Helgadóttir, 1987.</ref>
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<ref name="ein_grip">Einarsson, Árni. 2010. Sólarsteinninn: tæki eða tákn. (Summary in English: Sunstone: fact or fiction). ''[[Gripla]]'' '''21''' (1) 281–97 [[Árni Magnússon Institute for Icelandic Studies|Árni Magnússon Institute]]. {{issn|1018-5011}}.</ref>
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<ref name="einarrson_gripla">{{cite journal |author=Einarsson Á |year=2010 |title=Sólarsteinninn: tæki eða tákn. |trans_title=Sunstone: fact or fiction |journal=[[Gripla]] |volume=21 |issue=1 |pages=281–97 |publisher=[[Árni Magnússon Institute for Icelandic Studies|Árni Magnússon Institute]] |issn=1018-5011}}</ref>
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<ref name="saintolaf">Einarsson, Árni. 1997. "Saint Olaf’s dream house.  A medieval [[cosmological allegory]]". ''Skáldskaparmál'' 4: 179–209, Stafaholt, Reykjavík. {{issn|1026-213X}}</ref>
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<ref name="saintolaf">Einarsson, Árni. 1997. "Saint Olaf’s dream house.  A medieval [[cosmological allegory]]". ''Skáldskaparmál'' 4: 179–209, Stafaholt, Reykjavík. {{issn|1026-213X}}</ref>
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<ref name="hild_imagery">Einarsson, Árni.  2001. The symbolic imagery of Hildegard of Bingen as a key to the allegorical Raudulfs thattr in Iceland. ''[[Erudiri Sapientia]]'', Studien zum Mittelalter und zu seiner Rezeptionsgeschichte [Studies on the Middle Ages and its reception history]; II: 377–400. {{issn|1615-441X}}</ref>
 
<ref name="hild_imagery">Einarsson, Árni.  2001. The symbolic imagery of Hildegard of Bingen as a key to the allegorical Raudulfs thattr in Iceland. ''[[Erudiri Sapientia]]'', Studien zum Mittelalter und zu seiner Rezeptionsgeschichte [Studies on the Middle Ages and its reception history]; II: 377–400. {{issn|1615-441X}}</ref>
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<ref name="loescher"> Loescher, G. 1981. Rauðúlfs þáttr. ''Zeitschrift für deutsches Altertum und Deutsche Literatur'' (''[[Zeitschrift für deutsches Altertum und Deutsche Literatur|ZfDA]]'') 110: 253-266. {{issn|0044-2518}}</ref>
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<ref name="loescher">Loescher, G. 1981. "Rauðúlfs þáttr". ''Zeitschrift für deutsches Altertum und Deutsche Literatur'' (''[[Zeitschrift für deutsches Altertum und Deutsche Literatur|ZfDA]]'') 110: 253-266. {{issn|0044-2518}}</ref>
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<ref name="ein_1997">Einarsson, 1997.</ref>
+
−
<ref name="faulkes_66">Faulkes, 1966.</ref>
+
 
<ref name="abreeze">Breeze, Andrew. 1999. "The blessed virgin and the sunbeam through glass". ''[[Celtica]]'' 23: 19–29. {{issn|0069-1399}}</ref>
 
<ref name="abreeze">Breeze, Andrew. 1999. "The blessed virgin and the sunbeam through glass". ''[[Celtica]]'' 23: 19–29. {{issn|0069-1399}}</ref>
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<ref name="bragason">Bragason, Úlfar 1988. The structure and meaning of Hrafns saga Sveinbjarnarsonar. ''[[Scandinavian Studies]]'' 60: 267–292. {{issn|0036-5637}}</ref>
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<ref name="bragason">Bragason, Úlfar 1988. "The structure and meaning of Hrafns saga Sveinbjarnarsonar". ''[[Scandinavian Studies]]'' 60: 267–292. {{issn|0036-5637}}</ref>
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<ref name="ein_2010a">Einarsson, 2010.</ref>
+
 
<ref name="foote_56">Foote, Peter. G. 1956. Icelandic sólarsteinn and the medieval background. Arv. Tidskrift för Nordisk Folkminnesforskning 12: 26-40.</ref>
 
<ref name="foote_56">Foote, Peter. G. 1956. Icelandic sólarsteinn and the medieval background. Arv. Tidskrift för Nordisk Folkminnesforskning 12: 26-40.</ref>
−
<ref name="schnall_75">Schnall, Uwe. 1975. Navigation der Wikinger. Nautische Probleme der Wikingerzeit im Spiegel der schriftlichen Quellen. Schriften des Deutschen Schiffahrtsmuseums. Band 6. Oldenburg og Hamburg.196</ref>
+
<ref name="schnall75">Schnall, Uwe. 1975. Navigation der Wikinger. Nautische Probleme der Wikingerzeit im Spiegel der schriftlichen Quellen. Schriften des Deutschen Schiffahrtsmuseums. Band 6. Oldenburg og Hamburg.196</ref>
−
<ref name="ein_2010b">Einarsson, 2010.</ref>
+
 
<ref name="thorkild">Ramskou, Thorkild. 1967. Solstenen. Skalk 2: 16–17.</ref>
 
<ref name="thorkild">Ramskou, Thorkild. 1967. Solstenen. Skalk 2: 16–17.</ref>
 
<ref name="thorkild_nav">Ramskou, Thorkild. 1969. Solstenen&nbsp;– Primitiv Navigation i Norden för Kompasset. Köbenhavn: Rhodos.</ref>
 
<ref name="thorkild_nav">Ramskou, Thorkild. 1969. Solstenen&nbsp;– Primitiv Navigation i Norden för Kompasset. Köbenhavn: Rhodos.</ref>
 
<ref name="animals">[[Gábor Horváth (biophysicist)|Horváth, Gábor]] and Dezsö Varjú. 2004. ''Polarized Light in Animal Vision: Polarization Patterns in Nature''. [[Springer Science+Business Media|Springer]]. ISBN 3-540-40457-0</ref>
 
<ref name="animals">[[Gábor Horváth (biophysicist)|Horváth, Gábor]] and Dezsö Varjú. 2004. ''Polarized Light in Animal Vision: Polarization Patterns in Nature''. [[Springer Science+Business Media|Springer]]. ISBN 3-540-40457-0</ref>
 +
<ref name="skyc">Moody, Alton B. 1950. "The [[August Herman Pfund|Pfund]] Sky Compass". ''[[Institute of Navigation|Navigation]]''. '''2''' (7): 234–239. {{issn|0028-1522}}.</ref>
 
<ref name="peasoup">[[Ramón Hegedüs|Hegedüs, Ramón]], [[Susanne Åkesson|Åkesson, Susanne]]; [[Rüdiger Wehner|Wehner, Rüdiger]] and Horváth, Gábor. 2007. "Could Vikings have navigated under foggy and cloudy conditions by skylight polarization? On the atmospheric optical prerequisites of polarimetric Viking navigation under foggy and cloudy skies". ''[[Proceedings of the Royal Society|Proc. R. Soc.]] A'' 463: 1081–1095. {{issn|0962-8452}}.</ref>
 
<ref name="peasoup">[[Ramón Hegedüs|Hegedüs, Ramón]], [[Susanne Åkesson|Åkesson, Susanne]]; [[Rüdiger Wehner|Wehner, Rüdiger]] and Horváth, Gábor. 2007. "Could Vikings have navigated under foggy and cloudy conditions by skylight polarization? On the atmospheric optical prerequisites of polarimetric Viking navigation under foggy and cloudy skies". ''[[Proceedings of the Royal Society|Proc. R. Soc.]] A'' 463: 1081–1095. {{issn|0962-8452}}.</ref>
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<ref name="schnall_77">Schnall, 1977.</ref>
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</references>
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<ref name="ein_2010c">Einarsson, 2010.</ref>
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== Citations ==
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{{reflist|2}}
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==External links==
 
==External links==
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*[http://www.nordskip.com/vikingcompass.html#sun The Fabled Viking Sunstone]
 
*[http://www.polarization.com/viking/viking.html The Viking Sunstone Is the legend of the Sun-Stone true ?]
 
*[http://www.polarization.com/viking/viking.html The Viking Sunstone Is the legend of the Sun-Stone true ?]
  
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==See also==
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[[Category:Icelandic culture]]
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*[[Vegvísir]]
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[[Category:Icelandic culture]][[Category:Wikipedia Articles for Deletion]]
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Revision as of 23:06, 27 December 2010

The sunstone (Template:lang-is) is a type of mineral attested in several 13th–14th century written sources in Iceland, one of which describes its use to locate the sun in a completely overcast sky. Sunstones are also mentioned in the inventories of several churches and one monastery in 14th–15th century Iceland. A theory exists that the sunstone had polarizing attributes and was used as a navigation instrument by seafarers in the Viking Age.[1]

Sources

One medieval source in Iceland, "Rauðúlfs þáttr",[2][3] mentions the sunstone as a mineral by means of which the sun could be located in an overcast and snowy sky by holding it up and noting where it emitted, reflected or transmitted light (hvar geislaði úr honum).[4] Sunstones are also mentioned in Hrafns saga Sveinbjarnarsonar (13th century)[5] and in church and monastic inventories (14th–15th century) without discussing their attributes. The sunstone texts of Hrafns saga Sveinbjarnarsonar were copied to all four versions of the medieval hagiography Guðmundar saga góða.[6]

The description in "Rauðúlfs þáttr" of the use of the sunstone is as follows:

Thorsteinn Vilhjalmsson translation:
The weather was thick and snowy as Sigurður had predicted. Then the king summoned Sigurður and Dagur (Rauðúlfur´s sons) to him. The king made people look out and they could nowhere see a clear sky. Then he asked Sigurður to tell where the sun was at that time. He gave a clear assertion. Then the king made them fetch the solar stone and held it up and saw where light radiated from the stone and thus directly verified Sigurður’ s prediction.[7]
In Icelandic:
"Veður var þykkt og drífanda sem Sigurður hafði sagt. Þá lét konungur kalla til sín Sigurð og Dag. Síðan lét konungur sjá út og sá hvergi himin skýlausan. Þá bað hann Sigurð segja hvar sól mundi þá komin. Hann kvað glöggt á. Þá lét konungur taka sólarstein og hélt upp og sá hann hvar geislaði úr steininum og markaði svo beint til sem Sigurður hafði sagt").[8]

Allegorical nature of the medieval texts

Two of the original medieval texts on the sunstone are allegorical. Hrafns saga Sveinbjarnarsonar contains a burst of purely allegorical material associated with Hrafn’s slaying. This involves a celestial vision with three highly cosmological knights, recalling the horsemen of the Apocalypse.[5] It has been suggested that the horsemen of Hrafns saga contain allegorical allusions to the winter solstice and the four elements as an omen of Hrafn’s death, where the sunstone also appears.[9]

"Rauðúlfs þáttr", a tale of Saint Olav, and the only medieval source mentioning how the sunstone was used, is a thoroughly allegorical work.[10] A round and rotating house visited by Olav has been interpreted as a model of the cosmos and the human soul, as well as a prefiguration of the Church.[11][12] The intention of the author was to achieve an apotheosis of St. Olav, through placing him in the symbolic seat of Christ.[10] The house belongs to the genre of of "abodes of the sun," which seemed widespread in medieval literature.[3] St. Olav used the sunstone to confirm the time reckoning skill of his host right after leaving this allegorical house. He held the sunstone up against the snowy and completely overcast sky and noted where light was emitted from it (the Icelandic words used do not make it clear whether the light was reflected by the stone, emitted by it or transmitted through it). It has been suggested that in Rauðúlfs þáttr the sunstone was used as a symbol of the Virgin, following a widespread tradition[13] in which the virgin birth of Christ is compared with glass letting a ray of the sun through.[9][14]

The allegories of the above mentioned texts exploit the symbolic value of the sunstone, but the church and monastic inventories, however, show that something called sunstones did exist as physical objects in Iceland.[15] The presence of the sunstone in "Rauðúlfs þáttr" may be entirely symbolic[16] but its use is described in sufficient detail to show that the idea of using a stone to find the sun's position in overcast conditions was commonplace.[9]

Sunstones for orientation and navigation?

Danish archaeologist Thorkild Ramskou posited that the sunstone could have been one of the minerals (cordierite or Iceland spar) that polarize light and by which the azimuth of the sun can be determined amid a partly overcast sky or when the sun is just below the horizon.[17][18] The principle is used by many animals[19] and was applied during polar flights before more advanced techniques became available.[20] Ramskou’s theory that the sunstone could have aided navigation in the open sea in the Viking period has become very popular,[21] but no extant records of the use of a sunstone for navigation exist in the medieval literature, and used alone, a polarizing mineral only gives the horizontal angle of the sun (azimuth), which is only of marginal value when navigating the open sea.[16] A polarizing crystal would have been useful as a sundial, especially at high latitudes with extended hours of twilight, in mountainous areas or in partly overcast conditions, although only in conjunction with known landmarks; churches and monasteries would have valued such an object as an aid to keep track of the canonical hours.[9]

See also

References

  1. ↑ Ramskou, Thorkild. 1967. Solstenen. Skalk 2: 16–17.
  2. ↑ Turville-Petre, Joan E. (Trans.) (1947). The story of Rauð and his sons. Payne Memorial Series II. Viking Society for Northern Research.
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 Faulkes, Anthony. 1966. "Rauðúlfs þáttr: A study". Studia Islandica 25. Heimspekideild Háskóla Íslands og Bókaútgáfa Menningarsjóðs. Reykjavík. Template:ISSN
  4. ↑ Sample, Ian."Crystals may have aided Viking sailors". Guardian (Manchester, UK) p. 8. 7 February 2007. Retrieved December 27, 2010. "Tests aboard a research vessel in the Arctic ocean found that certain crystals can be used to reveal the position of the sun, a trick that would have allowed early explorers to ascertain their position and navigate, even if the sky was obscured by cloud or fog."
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 Helgadóttir, Guðrún P (ed.). 1987. Hrafns Saga Sveinbjarnarsonar. Oxford: Clarendon Press. ISBN 0-19-811162-2.
  6. ↑ Karlsson, Stefán (ed.).1983. Guðmundar sögur biskups I: Ævi Guðmundar biskups, Guðmundar saga A. Editiones Arnamagnæanæ, Series B (6). København: C.A. Reitzels Forlag. ISBN 87-7421-387-3
  7. ↑ Vilhjalmsson, Thorsteinn. 1997. "Time and Travel in Old Norse Society". Disputatio, (II): 89–114.
  8. ↑ Johnsen, Oscar Albert and Jón Helgason (eds.). 1941. Saga Óláfs konungs hins helga. Den store saga om Olav den hellige. Efter pergamenthandskrift i Kungliga Biblioteket i Stockholm nr. 2 4to med varianter fra andre handskrifter. Norsk Historisk Kjeldeskrifts-Institutt. Oslo. Vol. II., 670–1
  9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 9.2 9.3 Einarsson, Árni. 2010. Sólarsteinninn: tæki eða tákn. (Summary in English: Sunstone: fact or fiction). Gripla 21 (1) 281–97 Árni Magnússon Institute. Template:issn.
  10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 Einarsson, Árni. 1997. "Saint Olaf’s dream house. A medieval cosmological allegory". Skáldskaparmál 4: 179–209, Stafaholt, Reykjavík. Template:issn
  11. ↑ Einarsson, Árni. 2001. The symbolic imagery of Hildegard of Bingen as a key to the allegorical Raudulfs thattr in Iceland. Erudiri Sapientia, Studien zum Mittelalter und zu seiner Rezeptionsgeschichte [Studies on the Middle Ages and its reception history]; II: 377–400. Template:issn
  12. ↑ Loescher, G. 1981. "Rauðúlfs þáttr". Zeitschrift für deutsches Altertum und Deutsche Literatur (ZfDA) 110: 253-266. Template:issn
  13. ↑ Breeze, Andrew. 1999. "The blessed virgin and the sunbeam through glass". Celtica 23: 19–29. Template:issn
  14. ↑ Bragason, Úlfar 1988. "The structure and meaning of Hrafns saga Sveinbjarnarsonar". Scandinavian Studies 60: 267–292. Template:issn
  15. ↑ Foote, Peter. G. 1956. Icelandic sólarsteinn and the medieval background. Arv. Tidskrift för Nordisk Folkminnesforskning 12: 26-40.
  16. ↑ 16.0 16.1 Schnall, Uwe. 1975. Navigation der Wikinger. Nautische Probleme der Wikingerzeit im Spiegel der schriftlichen Quellen. Schriften des Deutschen Schiffahrtsmuseums. Band 6. Oldenburg og Hamburg.196
  17. ↑ Ramskou, Thorkild. 1967. Solstenen. Skalk 2: 16–17.
  18. ↑ Ramskou, Thorkild. 1969. Solstenen â€“ Primitiv Navigation i Norden för Kompasset. Köbenhavn: Rhodos.
  19. ↑ Horváth, Gábor and Dezsö Varjú. 2004. Polarized Light in Animal Vision: Polarization Patterns in Nature. Springer. ISBN 3-540-40457-0
  20. ↑ Moody, Alton B. 1950. "The Pfund Sky Compass". Navigation. 2 (7): 234–239. Template:issn.
  21. ↑ Hegedüs, Ramón, Ã…kesson, Susanne; Wehner, Rüdiger and Horváth, Gábor. 2007. "Could Vikings have navigated under foggy and cloudy conditions by skylight polarization? On the atmospheric optical prerequisites of polarimetric Viking navigation under foggy and cloudy skies". Proc. R. Soc. A 463: 1081–1095. Template:issn.

External links

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