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| − | '''Nazi Germany''' initiated a strong '''anti-tobacco movement'''<ref name="PHCM252">{{Harvnb|Young|2005|p=252}}</ref> and led the first public [[anti-smoking movement|anti-smoking campaign]] in [[modern history]].<ref name="STR15">{{Harvnb|Szollosi-Janze|2001|p=15}}</ref> Anti-[[tobacco]] movements grew in many nations from the beginning of the 20th century,<ref name=SMMUESHP>{{citation|url=http://smm.sagepub.com/cgi/content/abstract/7/2/87|title=Uncovering the effects of smoking: historical perspective|author=[[Richard Doll]]|accessdate=2008-06-01|journal=Statistical Methods in Medical Research||volume=7 |issue=2 |pages=87–117 |year=1998 |month=June |pmid=9654637| quote=Societies were formed to discourage smoking at the beginning of the century in several countries, but they had little success except in Germany where they were officially supported by the government after the Nazis seized power.}}</ref><ref>{{citation|last=Borio |first=Gene |title=Tobacco Timeline: The Twentieth Century 1900-1949--The Rise of the Cigarette|publisher=Tobacco.org|year=1993-2003|url=http://www.tobacco.org/resources/history/Tobacco_History20-1.html|accessdate=2008-11-15}}</ref> but these had little success, except in Germany, where the campaign was supported by the government after the [[List of Nazi Party leaders and officials|Nazis]] came to power.<ref name=SMMUESHP/> It was the most powerful anti-[[smoking]] movement in the world during the 1930s and early 1940s.<ref name=BMJATCNLKAPHG>{{citation|url=http://www.bmj.com/cgi/content/full/313/7070/1450|title=The anti-tobacco campaign of the Nazis: a little known aspect of public health in Germany, 1933-45|author=[[Robert N. Proctor]], Pennsylvania State University|accessdate=2008-06-01|journal=[[British Medical Journal]]|volume=313 |issue=7070 |pages=1450–3 |year=1996 |month=December |pmid=8973234 |pmc=2352989 }}</ref> The National Socialist leadership condemned smoking<ref name="WMT375">{{Harvnb|Bynum|Hardy|Jacyna|Lawrence|Tansey|2006|Ref=CITEREFBynumHardyJacynaLawrenceTansey2006|p=375}}</ref> and several of them openly criticized tobacco consumption.<ref name=BMJATCNLKAPHG/> Research on smoking and its effects on health thrived under Nazi rule<ref name=ADLNMPHP>{{citation|last=Proctor|first=Robert N.|title=Nazi Medicine and Public Health Policy|publisher=''Dimensions'', [[Anti-Defamation League]]|year=1996|url=http://www.adl.org/Braun/dim_14_1_nazi_med.asp|accessdate=2008-06-01}}</ref> and was the most important of its type at that time.<ref name="HRCPL1373-74">{{Harvnb|Clark|Briggs|Cooke|2005|pp=1373–74}}</ref> [[Adolf Hitler|Adolf Hitler's]] personal distaste for tobacco<ref name="NWC219">{{Harvnb|Proctor|1999|p=219}}</ref> and the Nazi [[Nazi Germany#Women's rights|reproductive policies]] were among the motivating factors behind their campaign against smoking, and this campaign was associated with both [[antisemitism]] and [[racism]].<ref name="BMJGDS">{{citation|url=http://www.bmj.com/cgi/content/full/329/7480/1424|title=Lifestyle, health, and health promotion in Nazi Germany|author=George Davey Smith|accessdate=2008-07-01|journal=British Medical Journal|volume=329 |issue=7480 |pages=1424–5 |year=2004 |month=December |pmid=15604167 |pmc=535959 |doi=10.1136/bmj.329.7480.1424}}</ref>
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| − | The Nazi anti-tobacco campaign included [[Smoking ban|banning smoking]] in [[Trams in Germany|trams]], buses and city trains,<ref name=BMJATCNLKAPHG/> promoting [[health education]],<ref name="SGHS328">{{Harvnb|Gilman|Zhou|2004|p=328}}</ref> limiting cigarette rations in the [[Wehrmacht]], organizing medical lectures for soldiers, and raising the [[Tobacco smoking#Taxation|tobacco tax]].<ref name=BMJATCNLKAPHG/> The National Socialists also imposed restrictions on [[tobacco advertising]] and smoking in public spaces, and regulated restaurants and coffeehouses.<ref name=BMJATCNLKAPHG/> The anti-tobacco movement did not have much effect in the [[History of Germany#Nazi revolution or .27Seizure of Power.27|early years of the Nazi regime]] and tobacco use increased between 1933 and 1939,<ref name="NWC228">{{Harvnb|Proctor|1999|p=228}}</ref> but smoking by military personnel declined from 1939 to 1945.<ref name="HRCPL1374">{{Harvnb|Clark|Briggs|Cooke|2005|Ref=CITEREFClarkBriggsCooke2005|p=1374}}</ref> Even by the end of the 20th century, the anti-smoking movement in postwar Germany had not attained the influence of the Nazi anti-smoking campaign.<ref name="NWC228"/>
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| − | ==Prelude to Nazi anti-tobacco campaign==
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| − | Anti-tobacco sentiment existed in [[German Empire|Germany]] in the early 1900s. Critics of smoking organized the first anti-tobacco group in the country named the ''Deutscher Tabakgegnerverein zum Schutze der Nichtraucher'' (German Tobacco Opponents' Association for the Protection of Non-smokers). Established in 1904, this organization existed for a brief period only. The next anti-tobacco organization, the ''Bund Deutscher Tabakgegner'' (Federation of German Tobacco Opponents), was established in 1910 in [[Trautenau]], [[Bohemia]]. Other anti-smoking organizations were established in 1912 in the cities of [[Hanover]] and [[Dresden]]. In 1920, a ''Bund Deutscher Tabakgegner in der Tschechoslowakei'' (Federation of German Tobacco Opponents in Czechoslovakia) was formed in [[Prague]], after [[Czechoslovakia]] was separated from [[Austria]] at the end of [[World War I]]. A ''Bund Deutscher Tabakgegner in Deutschösterreich'' (Federation of German Tobacco Opponents in [[German Austria]]) was established in [[Graz]] in 1920.<ref>{{citation|last=Proctor|first=Robert|title=The Nazi War on Tobacco: Ideology, Evidence, and Possible Cancer Consequences|journal=[[Bulletin of the History of Medicine]] |volume=71 |issue=3 |pages=435–88 |year=1997 |pmid=9302840 |url=http://environmentaloncology.org/files/file/secrethistorysupport/Chapt%203%20References/REF%207%20proctor.pdf|format=PDF|accessdate=2008-07-22|quote=The first German antitobacco organization was established in 1904 (the short-lived Deutscher Tabakgegnerverein zum Schutze für Nichtraucher); this was followed by a Bund Deutscher Tabakgegner based in the town of Trautenau, in Bohemia (1910), and similar associations in Hanover and Dresden (both founded in 1912). When Czechoslovakia was severed from Austria after the First World War, a Bund Deutscher Tabakgegner in der Tschechoslowakei was established in Prague (1920); that same year in Graz a Bund Deutscher Tabakgegner in Deutschösterreich was founded.}}</ref>
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| − | These groups published journals advocating nonsmoking. The first such [[German language]] journal was ''Der Tabakgegner'' (The Tobacco Opponent), published by the Bohemian organization between 1912 and 1932. The ''Deutsche Tabakgegner'' (German Tobacco Opponents) was published in Dresden from 1919 to 1935, and was the second journal on this subject.<ref name="NWC177">{{Harvnb|Proctor|1999|p=177}}</ref> The anti-tobacco organizations were also against consumption of [[Ethanol#Alcoholic beverages|alcohol]].<ref name="NWC178">{{Harvnb|Proctor|1999|p=178}}</ref>
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| − | ==Hitler's attitude towards smoking==
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| − | [[Adolf Hitler]] was a heavy smoker in his early life—he used to smoke 25 to 40 cigarettes daily—but gave up the habit, concluding that it was a waste of money.<ref name="NWC219"/> In later years, Hitler viewed smoking as "decadent"<ref name="HRCPL1374"/> and "the wrath of the [[Native Americans in the United States|Red Man]] against the White Man, vengeance for having been given [[hard liquor]]",<ref name="NWC219"/> lamenting that "so many excellent men have been lost to tobacco poisoning".<ref name="NWC173">{{Harvnb|Proctor|1999|p=173}}</ref> He was unhappy because both [[Eva Braun]] and [[Martin Bormann]] were smokers and was concerned over [[Hermann Göring]]'s continued smoking in public places. He was angered when a statue portraying a cigar-smoking Göring was commissioned.<ref name="NWC219"/> Hitler is often considered to be the first national leader to advocate nonsmoking.<ref name="BDDENI119">{{Harvnb|Tillman|2004|p=119}}</ref>
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| − | Hitler disapproved of the military personnel's freedom to smoke, and during [[World War II]] he said on March 2, 1942, "it was a mistake, traceable to the army leadership at the time, at the beginning of the war". He also said that it was "not correct to say that a soldier cannot live without smoking". He promised to end the use of tobacco in the military after the end of the war. Hitler personally encouraged close friends not to smoke and rewarded those who [[Smoking cessation|quit smoking]]. However, Hitler's personal distaste for tobacco was only one of several catalysts behind the anti-smoking campaign.<ref name="NWC219"/>
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| − | ==Reproductive policies==
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| − | The Nazi reproductive policies were a significant factor behind their anti-tobacco campaign.<ref name="BMJGDS">{{citation|url=http://www.bmj.com/cgi/content/full/329/7480/1424|title=Lifestyle, health, and health promotion in Nazi Germany|author=George Davey Smith|accessdate=2008-07-01|journal=British Medical Journal|volume=329 |issue=7480 |pages=1424–5 |year=2004 |month=December |pmid=15604167 |pmc=535959 |doi=10.1136/bmj.329.7480.1424}}</ref> Women who smoked were considered to be vulnerable to premature [[aging]] and loss of [[physical attractiveness]]; they were viewed as unsuitable to be wives and mothers in a German family. Werner Huttig of the [[Nazi Party]]'s ''[[Office of Racial Policy|Rassenpolitisches Amt]]'' (Office of Racial Politics) said that a smoking mother's [[breast milk]] contained [[nicotine]],<ref name="NWC187">{{Harvnb|Proctor|1999|p=187}}</ref> a claim that is proved to be correct in modern research.<ref>{{citation|url=http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/journal/120122530/abstract |title=Nicotine in breast milk influences heart rate variability in the infant |author=Anders Dahlström, Christina Ebersjö, Bo Lundell|accessdate=2008-11-15|journal=Acta Pædiatrica |volume=97 |issue=8 |pages=1075-1079 |year=2008 |month=August |pmid=18498428 |pmc= |doi=10.1111/j.1651-2227.2008.00785.x }}</ref><ref>{{citation|url= |title=Liquid chromatography/electrospray ionization tandem mass spectrometry assay for determination of nicotine and metabolites, caffeine and arecoline in breast milk |author= M Pellegrini, E Marchei, S Rossi, F Vagnarelli, A Durgbanshi, O GarcÃa-Algar, O Vall, S Pichini|accessdate=2008-11-15|journal=[[Rapid Communications in Mass Spectrometry]] |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=2693-2703 |year=2007 |month= |pmid=17640086 |pmc= |doi= }}</ref><ref>{{citation|url=http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/cgi/content/abstract/120/3/497 |title=Breastfeeding and Smoking: Short-term Effects on Infant Feeding and Sleep |author=Julie A. Mennella, Lauren M. Yourshaw, and Lindsay K. Morgan|accessdate=2008-11-15|journal=PEDIATRICS |volume=120 |issue=3 |pages=497-502 |year=2007 |month=September |pmid=17766521 |pmc= |doi=10.1542/peds.2007-0488 }}</ref> Martin Staemmler, a prominent physician during the Third Reich, opined that smoking by pregnant women resulted in a higher rate of [[stillbirth]]s and [[miscarriage]]s. This opinion was also supported by well-known female [[racial hygiene|racial hygienist]] Agnes Bluhm, whose book published in 1936 expressed the same view. The Nazi leadership was concerned over this because they wanted German women to be as [[Nazi Germany#Women's rights|reproductive]] as possible. An article published in a German [[gynaecology]] journal in 1943 stated that women smoking three or more cigarettes per day were more likely to remain [[childless]] compared to nonsmoking women.<ref name="NWC189">{{Harvnb|Proctor|1999|p=189}}</ref>
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| − | ==Research==
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| − | Research and studies on tobacco's effects on the population's health were more advanced in Germany than in any other nation by the time the Nazis came to power.<ref name=BMJATCNLKAPHG/> The [[Lung cancer#Smoking|link]] between [[lung cancer]] and tobacco was first proven in Nazi Germany,<ref name="NWC173"/><ref name=OANFRIPH>{{citation|url=http://ije.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/full/34/3/537|title=Odol, Autobahne and a non-smoking Führer: Reflections on the innocence of public health|author=Johan P. Mackenbach|accessdate=2008-06-01|journal=International Journal of Epidemiology|volume=34 |issue=3 |pages=537–9 |year=2005|pmid=15746205|month=June}}</ref><ref name="SUF155">{{Harvnb|Schaler|2004|p=155}}</ref> contrary to the popular belief that [[United States|American]] and [[United Kingdom|British]] scientists first discovered it in the 1950s.<ref name="NWC173"/> The term "[[passive smoking]]" ("''Passivrauchen''") was coined in Nazi Germany.<ref name="STR15"/> Research projects funded by the Nazis revealed many disastrous effects of smoking on health.<ref name="INJPR98">{{Harvnb|Coombs|Holladay|2006|p=98}}</ref> Nazi Germany supported [[Epidemiology|epidemiological research]] on the harmful effects of tobacco use.<ref name="PHCM252">{{Harvnb|Young|2005|p=252}}</ref> Hitler personally gave financial support to the ''Wissenschaftliches Institut zur Erforschung der Tabakgefahren'' (Institute for Tobacco Hazards Research) at the [[University of Jena]], headed by Karl Astel.<ref name="HRCPL1374"/><ref name="NWC207">{{Harvnb|Proctor|1999|Ref=CITEREFProctor1999|p=207}}</ref> Established in 1941, it was the most significant anti-tobacco institute in Nazi Germany.<ref name="NWC207"/>
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| − | Franz H. Müller in 1939 and E. Schairer in 1943 first used [[case-control]] epidemiological methods to study lung cancer among smokers.<ref name="HRCPL1374"/> In 1939, Müller published a study report in a reputed cancer journal in Germany which claimed that prevalence of lung cancer was higher among smokers.<ref name="PHCM252"/> Müller, described as the "forgotten father of experimental epidemiology",<ref name="NWC191">{{Harvnb|Proctor|1999|p=191}}</ref> was a member of the [[National Socialist Motor Corps]] (NSKK) and the [[Nazi Party]] (NSDAP). Müller's 1939 medical dissertation was the world's first controlled epidemiological study of the relationship between tobacco and lung cancer. Apart from mentioning the increasing incidence of lung cancer and many of the causes behind it such as dust, exhaust gas from cars, [[tuberculosis]], X-ray and pollutants emitted from factories, Müller's paper pointed out that "the significance of tobacco smoke has been pushed more and more into the foreground".<ref name="NWC194">{{Harvnb|Proctor|1999|p=194}}</ref>
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| − | Physicians in the Third Reich were aware that smoking is responsible for [[cardiac disease]]s, which were considered to be the most serious diseases resulting from smoking. Use of nicotine was sometimes considered to be responsible for increasing reports of [[myocardial infarction]] in the country. In the later years of World War II, researchers considered nicotine a factor behind the coronary heart failures suffered by a significant number of military personnel in the [[Eastern Front (World War II)|Eastern Front]]. A pathologist of the [[Heer (1935-1945)|Heer]] examined thirty-two young soldiers who had died from myocardial infarction at the front, and documented in a 1944 report that all of them were "enthusiastic smokers". He cited the opinion of pathologist Franz Buchner that cigarettes are "a coronary poison of the first order."<ref name="NWC187"/>
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| − | ==Anti-tobacco measures==
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| − | The Nazis used several public relations tactics to convince the general population of Germany not to smoke. Well-known health magazines like the ''Gesundes Volk'' (Healthy People),<ref name="INJPR98"/> ''Volksgesundheit'' (People's Health) and ''Gesundes Leben'' (Healthy Life)<ref name=SHNG>{{citation|url=http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/picrender.fcgi?artid=1059950&blobtype=pdf|format=PDF|title=Smoking and health promotion in Nazi Germany|author=George Davey Smith, Sabine A Strobele, Matthias Egger|accessdate=2008-07-21|journal=Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health|volume=48 |issue=3 |pages=220–3 |year=1994 |month=June |pmid=8051518}}</ref> published warnings about the health consequences of smoking<ref name="INJPR98"/><ref name=SHNG/> and posters showing the harmful effects of tobacco were displayed. Anti-smoking messages were sent to the people in their workplaces,<ref name="INJPR98"/> often with the help of the [[Hitler Youth|Hitler-Jugend]] (HJ) and the [[League of German Girls|Bund Deutscher Mädel]] (BDM).<ref name="BMJGDS"/><ref name="INJPR98"/><ref name=SHNG/> The anti-smoking campaign undertaken by the Nazis also included health education.<ref name="SGHS328"/><ref name=OANFRIPH/><ref name="MHSDPHB13">{{Harvnb|Berridge|2007|p=13}}</ref> In June 1939, a Bureau against the Hazards of Alcohol and Tobacco was formed and the ''Reichsstelle für Rauschgiftbekämpfung'' (Bureau for the Struggle against Addictive Drugs) also helped in the anti-tobacco campaign. Articles advocating nonsmoking were published in the magazines ''Die Genussgifte'' (The Poisons for Enjoyment), ''Auf der Wacht'' (On the Guard) and ''Reine Luft'' (Clean Air).<ref name="NWC199">{{Harvnb|Proctor|1999|p=199}}</ref> Out of these magazines, ''Reine Luft'' was the main journal of the anti-tobacco movement.<ref name=BMJATCNLKAPHG/><ref name=SSFTENQRP>{{citation|url=http://ije.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/full/30/1/31|title=Commentary: Schairer and Schöniger's forgotten tobacco epidemiology and the Nazi quest for racial purity|author=Robert N. Proctor|accessdate=2008-08-24|journal=International Journal of Epidemiology |volume=30 | pages=31–34 |year=2001 |month=February}}</ref> Karl Astel's Institute for Tobacco Hazards Research at Jena University purchased and distributed hundreds of reprints from ''Reine Luft''.<ref name=SSFTENQRP/>
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| − | After recognizing the harmful effects of smoking on health, several items of anti-smoking legislation were enacted.<ref name=BMJSD>{{citation|url=http://www.bmj.com/cgi/content/full/310/6976/396?ijkey=dded75b860ab74f5194afe48718a4f2e5fe51cb0&keytype2=tf_ipsecsha|title=Smoking and death. Public health measures were taken more than 40 years ago|author=George Davey Smith, Sabine Strobele and Matthias Egger|accessdate=2008-06-01|journal=British Medical Journal|pmid=7866221|volume=310 |issue=6976 |page=396 |year=1995 |month=February }}</ref> The later 1930s increasingly saw anti-tobacco laws implemented by the Nazis. In 1938, the [[Luftwaffe]] and the [[Reichspost]] imposed a ban on smoking. Smoking was also banned not only in health care institutions, but also in several public offices and in rest homes.<ref name=BMJATCNLKAPHG/> Midwives were restricted from smoking while on duty. In 1939, the Nazi Party outlawed smoking in all of its offices premises, and [[Heinrich Himmler]], the then chief of the [[Schutzstaffel]] (SS), restricted police personnel and SS officers from smoking while they were on duty.<ref name="NWC203">{{Harvnb|Proctor|1999|p=203}}</ref> Smoking was also outlawed in schools.<ref name="INJPR98"/>
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| − | In 1941, tobacco smoking in trams was outlawed in sixty German cities.<ref name="NWC203"/> Smoking was also outlawed in [[bomb shelter]]s; however, some shelters had separate rooms for smoking.<ref name=BMJATCNLKAPHG/> Special care was taken to prevent women from smoking. The President of the Medical Association in Germany announced, "German women don't smoke".<ref name="PCMCCEA169">{{Harvnb|Daunton|Hilton|2001|p=169}}</ref> Pregnant women and women below the age of 25 and over the age of 55 were not given tobacco ration cards during World War II. Restrictions on selling tobacco products to women were imposed on the hospitality and food retailing industry.<ref name="NWC203"/> Anti-tobacco films aimed at women were publicly aired. Editorials discussing the issue of smoking and its effects were published in [[:Category:Nazi newspapers|newspapers]]. Strict measures were taken in this regard and a district department of the [[National Socialist Factory Cell Organization]] (NSBO) announced that it would expel [[:Category:Female Nazis|female members]] who smoked publicly.<ref name="NCFWTR108">{{Harvnb|Guenther|2004|p=108}}</ref> The next step in the anti-tobacco campaign came in July 1943, when public smoking for persons under the age of 18 was outlawed.<ref name="BMJGDS"/><ref name=SHNG/><ref name="NWC203"/> In the next year, smoking in buses and city trains was made illegal,<ref name="HRCPL1374"/> on the personal initiative of Hitler, who feared female ticket takers might be the victims of passive smoking.<ref name=BMJATCNLKAPHG/>
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| − | Restrictions were imposed on the advertisement of tobacco products,<ref name="GB206">{{Harvnb|Uekoetter|2006|p=206}}</ref> enacted on December 7, 1941 and signed by Heinrich Hunke, the President of the Advertising Council. Advertisements trying to depict smoking as harmless or as an expression of masculinity were banned. Ridiculing anti-tobacco activists was also outlawed,<ref name="NWC204">{{Harvnb|Proctor|1999|p=204}}</ref> as was the use of advertising posters along rail tracks, in rural regions, stadiums and racing tracks. Advertising by loudspeakers and [[Postage stamps and postal history of Germany#.22Third Reich.22.2C 1933-1945|mail]] was also prohibited.<ref name="NWC206">{{Harvnb|Proctor|1999|p=206}}</ref>
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| − | Restrictions on smoking were also introduced in the Wehrmacht. Cigarette rations in the military were limited to six per soldier per day. Extra cigarettes were often sold to the soldiers, especially when there was no military advance or retreat in the battleground, however these were restricted to 50 for each person per month.<ref name=BMJATCNLKAPHG/> Teenaged soldiers serving in the [[12th SS Panzer Division Hitlerjugend]], composed of [[Hitler Youth]] members, were given candy instead of tobacco products.<ref>{{Harvnb|Meyer|2005|p=13}}</ref> Access to cigarettes was not allowed for the Wehrmacht's [[Women's roles in the World Wars#Germany|female auxiliary personnel]]. Medical lectures were arranged to persuade military personnel to quit smoking. An ordinance enacted on November 3, 1941 raised tobacco taxes by approximately 80–95% of the retail price. It would be the highest rise in tobacco taxes in Germany until more than 25 years after the [[Nazi Germany#Capitulation of German forces|collapse of the Nazi regime]].<ref name=BMJATCNLKAPHG/>
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| − | ==Effectiveness==
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| − | The early anti-smoking campaign was considered a failure, and from 1933 to 1937 there was a rapid increase in tobacco consumption in Germany.<ref name="NWC228"/> The rate of smoking in the nation increased faster even than in neighboring [[France]], where the anti-tobacco movement was tiny and far less influential. Between 1932 and 1939, [[per capita]] cigarette consumption in Germany increased from 570 to 900 per year, while the corresponding numbers for France were from 570 to 630.<ref name=BMJATCNLKAPHG/><ref name="LEE">{{Harvnb|Lee|1975}}</ref>
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| − | The cigarette manufacturing companies in Germany made several attempts to weaken the anti-tobacco campaign. They published new journals and tried to depict the anti-tobacco movement as "fanatic" and "unscientific".<ref name=BMJATCNLKAPHG/> The [[tobacco industry]] also tried to counter the [[Nazi Germany#Government|government]] campaign to prevent women from smoking and used smoking models in their advertisements.<ref name="PCMCCEA169"/> Despite government regulations, many women in Germany regularly smoked, including the wives of many high-ranking Nazi officials. For instance, [[Magda Goebbels]] smoked even while she was interviewed by a journalist. Fashion illustrations displaying women with cigarettes were often published in prominent publications such as the ''Beyers Mode für Alle'' (Beyers Fashion For All). The cover of the popular song ''[[Lili Marleen]]'' featured singer [[Lale Andersen]] holding a cigarette.<ref name="NCFWTR108"/>
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| − | {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; margin-right:30px; margin-left:30px" align="right"
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| − | |+'''{{nowrap|Cigarette consumption per capita}}<br>per year in Germany & the US'''<ref name="NWC228"/>
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| − | | colspan="4" | '''Year'''
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| − | | '''1930'''
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| − | | '''1935'''
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| − | | '''1940'''
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| − | | '''1944'''
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| − | |'''Germany'''||490||510||1,022||743
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| − | |'''United States'''||1,485||1,564||1,976||3,039
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| − | The Nazis implemented more anti-tobacco policies at the end of the 1930s and by the early years of World War II, the rate of tobacco usage declined. As a result of the anti-tobacco measures implemented in the Wehrmacht,<ref name=BMJATCNLKAPHG/> the total tobacco consumption by soldiers decreased between 1939 and 1945.<ref name="HRCPL1374"/> According to a survey conducted in 1944, the number of smokers increased in the Wehrmacht, but average tobacco consumption per military personnel declined by 23.4% compared to the immediate pre-World War II years. The number of people who smoked 30 or more cigarettes per day declined from 4.4% to 0.3%.<ref name=BMJATCNLKAPHG/>
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| − | The Nazi anti-tobacco policies were not free of contradictions. For example, the ''Volksgesundheit'' (People's Health) and ''Gesundheitspflicht'' (Duty to be Healthy) policies were enforced in parallel with the active distribution of cigarettes to people who the Nazis saw as "deserving" groups (e.g. frontline soldiers, members of the Hitler Youth). On the other hand, "undeserving" and stigmatized groups (Jews, war prisoners) were denied access to tobacco.<ref>{{citation|title=Tobacco policies in Nazi Germany: not as simple as it seems|author=Bachinger E, McKee M, Gilmore A|journal=Public Health |volume=122 |issue=5|pages=497–505|year=2008|month=May|pmid=18222506 |doi=10.1016/j.puhe.2007.08.005}}</ref>
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| − | ==Association with antisemitism and racism==
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| − | Apart from public health concerns, the Nazis were heavily influenced by ideology;<ref name="INJPR98"/> specifically, the movement was influenced by concepts of [[racial hygiene]] and bodily purity.<ref name="NWC174">{{Harvnb|Proctor|1999|p=174}}</ref> Nazi leaders believed that it was wrong for the [[master race]] to smoke<ref name="INJPR98"/> and that tobacco consumption was equal to "racial degeneracy".<ref name="NWC220">{{Harvnb|Proctor|1999|p=220}}</ref> The Nazis viewed tobacco as a "genetic poison".<ref name="NWC174"/> Racial hygienists opposed tobacco use, fearing that it would "corrupt" the "German germ plasm".<ref name="NWC179">{{Harvnb|Proctor|1999|p=179}}</ref> Nazi anti-tobacco activists often tried to depict tobacco as a "vice" of the "degenerate" [[African]]s.<ref name="NWC174"/>
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| − | The Nazis claimed that the [[Jew]]s were responsible for introducing tobacco and its harmful effects. The [[Seventh-day Adventist Church]] in Germany announced that smoking was an unhealthy vice spread by the Jews.<ref name="NWC179"/> [[Johann von Leers]], editor of the ''Nordische Welt'' (Nordic World), during the opening ceremony of the ''Wissenschaftliches Institut zur Erforschung der Tabakgefahren'' in 1941, proclaimed that "Jewish capitalism" was responsible for the spread of tobacco use across [[Europe]]. He said that the first tobacco on German soil was brought by the Jews and that they controlled the tobacco industry in [[Amsterdam]], the principal European entry point of ''[[Nicotiana]]''.<ref name="NWC208">{{Harvnb|Proctor|1999|p=208}}</ref>
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| − | ==After World War II==
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| − | After the collapse of Nazi Germany at the [[End of World War II in Europe|end of World War II]], [[:Category:Tobacco companies of the United States|American cigarette manufacturers]] quickly entered the German market. Illegal [[smuggling]] of tobacco became prevalent,<ref name="NWC245">{{Harvnb|Proctor|1999|p=245}}</ref> and leaders of the Nazi anti-smoking campaign were silenced.<ref name=ADLNMPHP/> In 1949, approximately 400 million cigarettes manufactured in the United States entered Germany illegally every month. In 1954, nearly two billion [[Switzerland|Swiss]] cigarettes were smuggled into Germany and [[Italy]]. As part of the [[Marshall Plan]], the United States sent free tobacco to Germany; the amount of tobacco shipped into Germany in 1948 was 24,000 tons and was as high as 69,000 tons in 1949. The [[Federal government of the United States]] spent $70 million on this scheme, to the delight of cigarette manufacturing companies in the United States, who profited hugely.<ref name="NWC245"/> Per capita yearly cigarette consumption in [[History of Germany since 1945|post-war Germany]] steadily rose from 460 in 1950 to 1,523 in 1963. At the end of the 20th century, the anti-tobacco campaign in Germany has been unable to exceed the seriousness of the Nazi-era climax in the years 1939–41 and German tobacco health research is described by [[Robert N. Proctor]] as "muted".<ref name="NWC228"/>
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| − | ==Reductio ad Hitlerum==
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| − | Nick K Schneider of the Center for Tobacco Control Research and Education, [[University of California, San Francisco]] and professor Stanton A Glantz of the Department of Medicine and Center for Tobacco Control Research and Education at the [[UCSF]] writes, "the tobacco industry and its front groups abused and distorted history to condemn tobacco control measures as Nazi policies and its advocates as "health fascists." Proctor in his book ''The Nazi War on Cancer'' clarified that the implementation of anti-tobacco measures by the Nazis do not mean tobacco control policies will be inherently fascist.<ref name=NNSA>[http://tobaccocontrol.bmj.com/cgi/content/extract/17/5/291]</ref> But despite this, the tobacco industry have made attempts to characterize anti-tobacco measure as "Nazi" or "fascist".<ref>[http://tobaccocontrol.bmj.com/cgi/content/extract/17/5/289]</ref> Tobacco manufacturers in both European and the United States have tried to play the Nazi card by linking anti-smoking measures with Nazi policings.<ref>[http://ije.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/full/30/1/31]</ref> [[Altria Group|Philip Morris]] (it was knows as Philip Morris when Proctor wrote the book), one of the largest tobacco companies in the world, in an advertisement depicted smokers as Jews and opponents of smoking as Nazis. The company did not mention that the tobacco industry in the Third Reich embraced the Nazi cause in an eager manner.<ref>Proctor, The Nazi War on Cancer, pp 272, 2000, ISBN 9780691070513</ref>
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| − | ==Notes==
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| − | {{reflist|2}}
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| − | ==References==
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| − | {{refbegin}}
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| − | * {{citation | last = Berridge | first = Virginia| year = 2007 | title = Marketing Health: Smoking and the Discourse of Public Health in Britain, 1945-2000 | publisher = [[Oxford University Press]] |ID=ISBN 0199260303}}.
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| − | * {{citation||last = Bynum | first = William F. | last2 = Hardy | first2 = Anne | last3 = Jacyna | first3 = Stephen | last4 = Lawrence | first4 = Christopher | last5 = Tansey | first5 = E. M. | year = 2006 | title = The Western Medical Tradition | publisher = [[Cambridge University Press]] | ID = ISBN 0521475244}}.
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| − | * {{citation | last = Clark | first = George Norman | last2 = Briggs | first2 = Asa | last3 = Cooke | first3 = A. M. | year = 2005 | title = A History of the Royal College of Physicians of London | publisher = Oxford University Press | ID = ISBN 019925334X}}.
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| − | * {{citation | last = Coombs | first = W. Timothy | last2 = Holladay | first2 = Sherry J. | year = 2006 | title = It's Not Just PR: Public Relations in Society | publisher = [[Blackwell Publishing]] | ID = ISBN 140514405X}}.
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| − | * {{citation | last = Daunton | first = Martin| last2 = Hilton | first2 = Matthew | year = 2001 | title = The Politics of Consumption: Material Culture and Citizenship in Europe and America | publisher = [[Berg Publishers]] | ID = ISBN 1859734715}}.
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| − | * {{citation | last = Gilman | first = Sander L. | last2 = Zhou | first2 = Xun | year = 2004 | title = Smoke: A Global History of Smoking | publisher = Reaktion Books | ID = ISBN 1861892004}}.
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| − | * {{citation | last = Guenther | first = Irene | year = 2004 | title = Nazi Chic?: Fashioning Women in the Third Reich | publisher = Berg Publishers | ID = ISBN 1859734006}}.
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| − | * {{citation | last = Lee | first = P. N. | year = 1975 | title = Tobacco Consumption in Various Countries | Edition= 4th | publisher = London: Tobacco Research Council | ID = }}.
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| − | * {{citation | last = Meyer | first = Hubert | year = 2005 | title = The 12th SS: The History of the Hitler Youth Panzer Division | publisher = Stackpole Books |ID=ISBN 9780811731980}}.
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| − | * {{citation | last = Proctor | first = Robert | year = 1999 | title = The Nazi War on Cancer | publisher = [[Princeton University Press]] | ID = ISBN 0691070512}}.
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| − | * {{citation | last = Schaler | first = Jeffrey A. | year = 2004 | title = Szasz Under Fire: A Psychiatric Abolitionist Faces His Critics | publisher = [[Open Court Publishing]] | ID = ISBN 0812695682}}.
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| − | * {{citation | last = Szollosi-Janze | first = Margit | year = 2001 | title = Science in the Third Reich | publisher = Berg Publishers | ID = ISBN 1859734219}}.
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| − | * {{citation | last = Tillman | first = Barrett | year = 2004 | title = Brassey's D-Day Encyclopedia: The Normandy Invasion A-Z | publisher = Potomac Books Inc. | ID = ISBN 1574887602}}.
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| − | * {{citation | last = Uekoetter | first = Frank | year = 2006 | title = The Green and the Brown: A History of Conservation in Nazi Germany | publisher = Cambridge University Press | ID = ISBN 0521848199}}.
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| − | * {{citation | last = Young | first = T. Kue | year = 2005 | title = Population Health: Concepts and Methods | publisher = Oxford University Press | ID = ISBN 0195158547}}.
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| − | {{refend}}
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| − | ==Further reading==
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| − | * {{citation|last=Bachinger|first=E||title= Tobacco policies in Austria during the Third Reich|journal=The International Journal of Tuberculosis and Lung Disease|volume=11 |issue=9 |pages=1033–7 |year=2007 |month=September |pmid=17705984 |url=http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/iuatld/ijtld/2007/00000011/00000009/art00018}}
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| − | * {{citation|first=Alexander|last=Brooks|title=Guest Column: Forward to the Past|newspaper=[[The Daily Californian]]|date=January 19, 1996}}
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| − | * {{citation|last=Doll|first=Richard|year=2001|title=Commentary: Lung cancer and tobacco consumption|journal=International Journal of Epidemiology|volume=30||issue=1|pages=30–31|url=http://ije.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/full/30/1/30}}
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| − | *{{citation|last=Haustein|first=Knut-Olaf|title=Fritz Lickint (1898-1960) – Ein Leben als Aufklärer über die Gefahren des Tabaks|publisher=''Suchtmedizin in Forschung und Praxis''|year=2004|url=http://www.ecomed-medizin.de/sj/sfp/Pdf/aId/6824|language=German|format=PDF}}
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| − | * {{citation|last=Proctor|first=Robert N|title=Why did the Nazis have the world's most aggressive anti-cancer campaign?|journal=Endeavour|volume=23 |issue=2 |pages=76–9 |year=1999 |pmid=10451929 |url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6V81-3YSXF26-11&_user=10&_coverDate=12%2F31%2F1999&_rdoc=7&_fmt=high&_orig=browse&_srch=doc-info(%23toc%235857%231999%23999769997%23172839%23FLP%23display%23Volume)&_cdi=5857&_sort=d&_docanchor=&_ct=23&_acct=C000050221&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=10&md5=4c0b7b77a2d9673c63735a1dace923e3}}
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| − | * {{citation | last = Proctor | first = Robert | year = 1988 | title = Racial Hygiene: Medicine Under the Nazis | publisher = [[Harvard University Press]] | ID = ISBN 0674745787}}
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| − | * {{Citation | last = R. Nicosia | first = Francis | last2 = Huener | first2 = Jonathan | year = 2002 | title = Medicine and Medical Ethics in Nazi Germany | publisher = Berghahn Books | ID = ISBN 1571813861}}
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| − | [[Category:Nazi Germany]]
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